Modification And Optimization Of The Physicochemical Properties Of Allanblackia (Allanblackia floribunda), African Walnut (Tetracarpidium conophorum) And Fluted Pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis) Seed Oil Blend In Bakery Shortening Production
ABSTRACT
The
objective of this work was to modify the physicochemical properties of Allanblackia, African walnut and fluted
pumpkin seed oil blend by chemical interesterification, for use in bakery
shortening production and to optimize the interesterification temperature, time
and catalyst concentration using response surface methodology (RSM) based on
central composite design (CCD). Baking performance of the formulated
shortenings were evaluated in bread, through physical/morphological and sensory
properties. Oils were extracted using solvent (ethanol and hexane) and hot
water floatation methods. Hot water floatation method gave oil yield of 43.40,
34.73 and 32.00 % for Allanblackia,
African walnut and fluted pumpkin seeds respectively. Melting point and density
were respectively 35.43 oC and 0.9145 g/ml, 17.13 oC and
0.9107 g/ml, 18.33 0C and 0.9166 g/ml for Allanblackia, African walnut and fluted pumpkin seed oils.
Refractive index (1.4750) of African walnut oil was significantly higher
(p<0.05) than those of Allanblackia and fluted pumpkin seed oils.
Fluted pumpkin seed oil showed wider plasticity with solid fat content of 44.96
to 0.99 % at 5 to 50 0C. Iodine value, free fatty acid and
saponification value ranged from 40.27 to 128.69 g/100g, 0.17 to 0.58 % and
152.03 – 199.98 mgKOH/g respectively. Iodine value of African walnut and fluted
pumpkin seed oils were significantly (p<0.05) higher than that of Allanblackia seed oil. Allanblackia seed oil recorded 57.5 %
total saturated fatty acids. African walnut oil contained 15.44 % omega-3 fatty
acid. The fitted regression model for the response variables from RSM were
significant (p<0.05) with C.V value of 0.266, 0.146, 0.502, 0.499, 0.602,
0.448 and 7.830 % and R2 of 96.8, 95.3, 94.2, 90.1, 99.5, 93.2 and
75.7 %, respectively for solid fat content, smoke point, melting point,
density, viscosity, Iodine value and free fatty acid. Model lack-of-fit in all
cases were desirably not significant (p>0.05). Predicted optimum condition
and desirability index of 0.907 was obtained at 74.57 oC, 46.0 min
and 0.278 % interesterification temperature, time and catalyst concentration,
respectively. Melting point and FFA were reduced significantly after
interesterification. Interesterified and non-interesterified margarine
containing 60 – 70 % fat base received same overall acceptability with those of
the commercial table margarine. Bakery shortenings produced with the optimum
interesterified oils, non-interesterified oils, commercial bakery shortenings
gave melting point of 32.53, 33.47, 42.70 and 40.10 oC,
respectively. Specific gravity and viscosity ranged from 0.9117 to 0.9377 and
21.75 to 38.19 cSt, respectively. Great variation in microstructural morphology
were apparent between all the bakery shortenings. Bread baked with
interesterified, non-interesterified, local and imported commercial shortenings
showed oven spring, loaf weight and specific volume ranging from 0.47 to 1.63
cm, 132.33 to 134.00 g and 3.49 – 3.52 cm3/g, respectively. Loaf
from interesterified shortening was scored higher with respect to texture and
overall acceptability. All the bread samples however, fell within the like
moderately (7) to like very much (8). The interesterified and commercial
shortenings showed good shelf stability after 120 days of storage at room
temperature. Use of Allanblackia, African walnut and fluted pumpkin seed
oils in wide range of domestic and industrial applications, for cooking and
food product development is highly recommended, based on their high content of
polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega-6 and omega-3) which have cholesterol
lowering properties.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Page
Title Page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Table of Content vi
List of Tables xiii
List of Figures xv
List of Plates xviii
Abstract xxii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.2 Background to the Study 1
1.3 Statement
of the Problem 6
1.4 Justification
of Study 6
1.4 Objectives
of the Study 7
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Bakery Shortening 9
2.2 Table Margarine 10
2.3 Fats
and Oils 11
2.4 Allanblackia as Oil Seed 12
2.5 Fluted
Pumpkins as Oil Seed 16
2.6 African Walnut 18
2.7 Oil Extraction and Refining 20
2.7.1 Oil extraction 20
2.7.2 Oil refining 21
2.8 Fat Modification 21
2.8.1 Hydrogenation 21
2.8.2 Blending 22
2.8.3 Fractionation 23
2.8.4 Interesterification
23
2.8.4.1 Chemical
interesterification 24
2.8.4.2 Enzymatic
interesterification 25
2.8.5 Genetic
modification 26
2.9 Physicochemical Properties of Fats and
Oils 27
2.9.1 Refractive index 27
2. 9.2 Density 27
2.9.3 Viscosity
27
2.9.4 Smoke point 27
2.9.5 Solid fat content 28
2.9.6 Free fatty acid 28
2.9.7 Saponification
value 29
2.9.8 Iodine value (iv) 29
2.9.9 Peroxide value 30
2.9.10 Unsaponifiable matter 30
2.9.11 Lipid composition 30
2.10 Crystallization: Nucleation and
Crystal
Growth 31
2.11 Polymorphism of Fat 33
2.12 Response Surface
Methodology (RSM) 33
2.12.1 Simultaneous
optimization of response variables 36
2.13 Bread 36
2.13.1 Physical and
structural changes in bread during baking 37
2.13.2 Chemical
transformations in bread during baking 37
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Materials 39
3.1.1 Allanblackia
seeds. 39
3.1.2 Fluted pumpkins seeds 39
3.1.3 African walnut 39
3.1.4 Product control 39
3.1.5 Chemicals and reagents 39
3.2 Oil Extraction and Percentage Fat
Content 40
3.2.1 Oil extraction (allanblackia, African walnut and
fluted
pumpkin seed oils) 40
3.2.2 Percentage fat content 40
3.3 Oil Analysis (Physical Properties) 41
3.3.1 Density. 41
3.3.2 Refractive index 41
3.3.3 Slip
melting point 42
3.3.4 Cloud point 42
3.3.5 Viscosity 42
3.3.6 Colour 43
3.3.7 Smoke point 43
3.4 Oil Analysis (Chemical Properties) 44
3.4.1
Iodine
value 44
3.4.2
Free
fatty acids 44
3.4.3
Saponification
value 45
3.4.4
Peroxide
value 45
3.4.5
Unsaponifiable
matter 46
3.4.6
Ester
value 47
3.5 Fatty
Acid Profile 47
3.6 Oil Blending 48
3.7 Chemical Interesterification 48
3.8 Bakery Shortening Production 48
3.9 Physicochemical
Properties of Bakery
Shortenings Formulated
from Interesterified
Blends of Allanblackia, Fluted Pumpkin And
African
Walnut Oils.
3.9.1 Physical properties of bakery
shortenings 50
3.9.2 Solid fat content of bakery
shortenings 50
3.0.3 Chemical properties of bakery
shortenings. 50
3.10 Elemental Composition of Bakery
Shortenings 50
3.11
Isothermal
Crystallization Behaviour of
Bakery Shortenings 51
3.12 Microstructure
Analysis of Bakery Shortenings
Using
Scanning Electron Microscope (Sem) 51
3.13 Table (Spreadable) Margarine
Production 51
3.14 Physicochemical Properties of Table
Margarine 52
3.14.1 Refractive
index (pv) of margarine 52
3.14.2 Slip
melting point (smp) of Margarine 53
3.14.3 Viscosity
of table Margarine 53
3.14.4 Iodine value of margarine 54
3.14.5 Free fatty acid (ffa) of margarine 54
3.14.6 Peroxide value (pv) of margarine 55
3.14.7 pH of margarine 55
3.15 Spreadability of Margarine 56
3.16 Consistency of Margarine 56
3.17 Sensory Evaluation of Table
Margarine 57
3.18 Bread Production 57
3.19 Dough Proving Capacity 58
3.20 Physical
Properties of Bread 58
3.20.1 Loaf
weight and height 58
3.20.2 Loaf
volume 58
3.20.3 Specific
loaf volume 58
3.20.4 Loaf
density 59
3.20.5 Loaf
weight loss 59
3.20.6 Oven
spring 59
3.20.7 Crumb
moisture 59
3.21 Texture Profile Analysis of Bread 60
3.22 Bread Crumb Pore Size
Characteristics 60
3.23 Sensory Evaluation of Bread 60
3.24 Changes in Physicochemical
Properties of
Shortenings
During Storage 61
3.25 Statistical
Analysis 61
3.26 Experimental Design 61
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Percentage Oil Yield of Allanblackia, African
Walnut and Fluted Pumpkin Seeds Extracted
With Hexane, Ethanol and Hot Water
Floatation. 64
4.2 Physical Properties of Allanblackia, African Walnut And
Fluted Pumpkin Seed Oils 65
4.3 Effect of Temperature on The Solid Fat of
Allanblackia,
African Walnut and Fluted Pumpkin
Seed Oils. 71
4.4 Chemical Properties of Allanblackia, African Walnut And
Fluted Pumpkin Seed Oils.
73
4.5
Fatty Acid Profile of Allanblackia, African Walnut And
Fluted Pumpkin Seed Oils. 79
4.6 Estimated Regression Coefficient and Fit
Statistics For
Solid Fat Content of the Samples
using Response Surface Methodology. 81
4.7 Effect of Processing Conditions on the
Solid Fat
Content of the Samples 84
4.8 Estimated
Regression Coefficient and Fit Statistics For
Smoke
Point of The Samples 86
4.9 Effect
of Processing Conditions on The Smoke Point Of
The
Samples 89
4.10 Estimated Regression Coefficient and Fit
Statistics For
Melting Point of the Samples 91
4.11 Effect
of Processing Conditions on The Melting Point Of
Samples
Using RSM. 94
4.12 Estimated
Regression Coefficient and Fit Statistics For
Density
of The Samples 95
4.13 Effect
of Processing Conditions on The Density of the Samples 98
4.14. Estimated
Regression Coefficient and Fit Statistics For
Viscosity
f The Samples. 99
4.15: Estimated
Regression Coefficient and Fit Statistics For
Iodine Value of The
Samples. 101
4.16 Effect
of Processing Conditions on The Iodine Value of the Samples. 103
4.17 Estimated
Regression Coefficient and Fit Statistics for
Free
Fatty Acid Value of the Samples 104
4.18 Set Goals and Constraints for Numerical
Optimization
Of the Interesterification Variables
and Responses,
Based on Response Surface Methodology. 106
4.19 Predicted
Optimum Condition and Desirability Index For
The
Samples using RSM 108
4.20 Validation
of Optimization for The Interesterification Of
Samples using RSM. 111
4.21 Physicochemical Properties of
Interesterified Blends Of
Allanblackia,
African Walnut and Fluted Pumpkin Seed
Oils at Different Factor
Combinations. 112
4.22 Physicochemical Properties of Table
Margarine Produced
from Interesterified And Non-
Interesterified Blends of Allanblackia,
African Walnut and Fluted Pumpkin
Seed Oils. 115
4.23 Sensory Properties of Table Margarine
Produced From
Interesterified And
Non-Interesterified Blends of Allanblackia,
African Walnut and Fluted Pumpkin
Seed Oils. 121
4.24 Physical Properties of Bakery Shortenings
Produced
With Optimum Interesterified And Non- Interesterified
Allanblackia,
African Walnut and Fluted Pumpkin Seed Oils. 124
4.25 Effect of Temperature on The Solid Fat Of
Bakery
Shortening Produced from
Interesterified And Non-Interesterified
Allanblackia,
African Walnut And
Fluted Pumpkin Seed Oils. 128
4.26 Chemical Properties of Bakery Shortenings
Produced
With Optimum Interesterified and
Non-Interesterified
Allanblackia,
African Walnut and Fluted Pumpkin Seed Oils. 131
4.27 Fatty Acid Profile of Bakery Shortenings
Produced from
Interesterified And
Non-Interesterified Allanblackia,
African Walnut
And Fluted Pumpkin Seed Oils. 135
4.28 Elemental Content (Mg/Kg) Of
Interesterified, Non- Interesterified
And Commercial Bakery Shortenings using
Energy Dispersive X-Ray
Fluorescence Spectrometry. 138
4.29 Isothermal Crystallization Behaviour of
Bakery
Shortenings Produced from
Interesterified And
Non- Interesterified
Allanblackia, African Walnut and
Fluted Pumpkin Seed Oil Blends. 140
4.30 Morphological Characteristics of
Interesterified, Non-
Interesterified and Commercial
Bakery Shortenings. 145
4.31 Proving Capacity of Dough Prepared with
Interesterified,
Non-Interesterified and Commercial
Bakery Shortening. 151
4.32 Physical Properties of Bread Produced from
Interesterified,
Non-Interesterified and Commercial, Bakery
Shortenings. 153
4.33 Texture Profile of Bread Produced from
Interesterified,
Non-Interesterified And Commercial
Bakery Shortenings. 158
4.34 Photo Images and Microstructure of Bread
Crumb Produced
With Interesterified,
Non-Interesterified And
Commercial Bakery Shortenings. 162
4.35 Sensory Properties of Bread Produced with Interesterified,
Non-Interesterified And Commercial
Bakery Shortenings. 168
4.36 Changes in Physicochemical Properties of
Bakery
Shortenings Produced from
Interesterified and
Non-Interesterified Allanblackia, African Walnut
And Fluted Pumpkin Seed Oils During
Storage. 171
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion 181
5.2 Recommendations 183
5.3. Contributions
to Knowledge 184
References 185
Appendices 208
LIST
OF TABLES
Page
3.1 CCD Design matrix for chemical
interesterification of
Allanblackia,
African walnut and fluted pumpkin seed oils 62
3.2 Experimental range and levels of the
independent variables
for chemical interesterification 63
4.1 percentage (%) oil yield of Allanblackia, African walnut
and
fluted pumpkin seeds 64
4.2 Physical
properties of Allanblackia, African
walnut and
fluted pumpkin seed oils 66
4.3 Chemical
properties of allanblackia, African
walnut and
fluted pumpkin seed oils 74
4.4 Fatty acid profile of Allanblackia, African walnut
and
fluted pumpkin seed oils 79
4.5 Estimated regression coefficient for solid fat
content (SFC)
of the samples using rsm 82
4.6 Estimated regression coefficient for
smoke point of the samples using rsm 86
4.7 Estimated regression coefficient for
melting point (MP) of the samples using rsm 92
4.8 Estimated regression coefficient for
density (Dn) of the samples using rsm 96
4.9 Estimated regression coefficient for
viscosity (Vs) of the
samples using rsm 100
4.10 Estimated regression coefficient for iodine
value of the samples using rsm 102
4.11 Estimated regression coefficient for percentage
free fatty acid of
the samples using rsm 105
4.12 Set goals and constraints for numerical
optimization of
variables and responses for the
interesterification of Allanblackia,
African walnut and fluted pumpkin
seed oils based on
response
surface methodology 107
4.13 Predicted optimum condition and desirability
index for the interesterification
of Allanblackia, African walnut and
fluted pumpkin
seed
oils based on response surface methodology 109
4.14 Validation of optimization for the
interesterification of Allanblackia, African walnut
and fluted pumpkin seed oils based on response surface
methodology 111
4.15 Physicochemical properties
of interesterified blends of Allanblackia,
African
walnut and fluted pumpkin seed oils at different factor combinations 113
4.16 Physicochemical
properties of table margarine produced from interesterified and
non-interesterified blend
of Allanblackia, African walnut and fluted pumpkin seed oils 118
4.17 Sensory
properties of table margarine produced from interesterified and non-interesterified blend of Allanblackia,
African walnut and fluted
pumpkin seed oils 122
4.18 Physical properties of
bakery shortenings produced with optimum interesterified
sample, non-interesterified sample and commercial shortening 126
4.19 Chemical
properties of bakery shortenings produced with optimum interesterified
and non- interesterified Allanblackia,
African
walnut and fluted pumpkin seed oils. 132
4.20 Fatty acid
profile of bakery shortenings produced with optimum interesterified
and non- interesterified Allanblackia,
African walnut
and
fluted pumpkin seed oils. 136
4.21 Elemental
content (mg/kg) of interesterified, non-interesterified and commercial
bakery shortening using energy dispersive x-ray fluorescence
spectrometry 139
4.22 Proving capacity (cm3) of dough
prepared with interesterified,
non-interesterified and commercial
bakery shortenings 152
4.23 Physical
properties of bread produced from interesterified
and non-interesterified bakery
shortening 155
4.24 Texture profile of bread produced from
interesterified, non- interesterified
and commercial bakery shortenings. 159
4.25 Sensory
properties of bread produced from interesterified,
non-interesterified and commercial
bakery shortenings 169
LIST
OF FIGURES
Page
3.1 Flow
diagram for bakery shortening production 49
4.1 Effect of temperature on the solid fat of
Allanblackia,
African
walnut and fluted pumpkin seed oils 72
4.2 Effect of interesterification time (x2)
and catalyst
concentration (x3) on percentage
solid fat content
of Allanblackia, African walnut and fluted pumpkin
seed oil blend. 84
4.3 Effect of interesterification temperature
(x1) and time (x2)
on the smoke point of Allanblackia, African walnut and
fluted
pumpkin seed oil blend 88
4.4 effect of interesterification temperature
(x1) and catalyst
concentration (x3) on the smoke point of Allanblackia,
African walnut and fluted pumpkin
seed oil blend 89
4.5 Effect of interesterification time (x2)
and catalyst
concentration (x3) on the
smoke point of Allanblackia,
African
walnut and fluted pumpkin seed oil blend 90
4.6 Effect of interesterification temperature
(x1) and time (x2)
on the melting point of Allanblackia, African walnut and
fluted pumpkin seed oil blend 94
4.7 Effect of interesterification time (x2)
and catalyst
concentration (x3) on the
density of Allanblackia,
African walnut and fluted pumpkin seed
oil blend 98
4.8 Effect of interesterification temperature
(x1) and time (x2)
on the iodine value (iv) of Allanblackia, African walnut
and
fluted pumpkin seed oil blend 103
4.9 Effect of interesterification time (x2)
and catalyst
concentration (x2) on the
iodine value (IV) of Allanblackia,
African walnut and fluted pumpkin seed oil blend 104
4.10 Effect
of temperature on the solid fat of bakery shortening produced from interesterified and non-interesterified Allanblackia,
African
walnut and fluted pumpkin seed oils. 129
4.11 Isothermal crystallization behaviour of
interesterified bakery
shortening at 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30
and 35 oc. 141
4.12 Isothermal crystallization behaviour of
non-interesterified
bakery shortening at 5, 10, 15, 20,
25, 30 and 35 oc. 142
4.13 Isothermal crystallization behaviour of
commercial bakery shortening
(local) at 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35 oc. 143
4.14: Isothermal crystallization behaviour of
imported commercial bakery shortening (imported) at 5, 10, 15,
20, 25, 30 and 35 oc. 144
4.15: Changes in solid fat
content during storage at room temperature (28±20c) 172
4.16 Changes in slip melting
point during storage at room temperature
(28±2 oc) 173
4.17 Changes in smoke point
during storage at room temperature (28±2 oc) 174
4.18 Changes in free fatty acid
content during
storage at room
temperature (28±2
oc) 175
4.19 Changes in peroxide value
during storage at room temperature (28±2 oc) 176
4.20 Changes in iodine value
during storage at room temperature (28±2 oc) 177
LIST
OF PLATES
Page
2.1 Fruit, seeds and tree of Allanblackia floribunda 16
2.2 Fluted pumpkin fruit and seeds. 17
2.3 African walnuts 20
4.1 Table margarine produced from
interesterified Allanblackia,
African walnut and fluted pumpkin
seed oils 116
4.2 Table margarine produced from
non-interesterified Allanblackia, African walnut and fluted pumpkin
seed oils 117
4.3 Bakery shortenings produced from Allanblackia,
African walnut and fluted pumpkin seed oil
blends (interesterified
and non-interesterified) and the
commercial bakery shortenings
(local and imported) 125
4.4 Microstructure of bakery shortening produced from
interesterified Allanblackia, African walnut and fluted
pumpkin seed oil blend 146
4.5 Microstructure of bakery shortening produced from
non-interesterified Allanblackia, African walnut and
fluted pumpkin seed oil blend 147
4.6 Microstructure of local commercial bakery
shortening 148
4.7 Microstructure of imported
commercial bakery shortening 149
4.8 Dough samples before proving 154
4.9 Dough samples after proving 154
4.10 Bread samples after baking 154
4.11 Photo image of bread crumb produced from
interesterified bakery shortening. 163
4.12 Microstructure of bread crumb produced from
interesterified
bakery shortening 163
4.13 Photo image of bread crumb produced from
non-interesterified
bakery shortening. 164
4.14 Microstructure of bread crumb produced from
non-interesterified bakery
shortening 164
4.15 Photo image of bread crumb produced from
local
commercial bakery shortening. 165
4.16 Microstructure of bread crumb produced from
local
commercial bakery shortening. 165
4.17 Photo image of bread crumb produced from
imported commercial bakery
shortening. 166
4.18 Microstructure of bread crumb produced from
imported commercial bakery shortening. 166
LIST
OF EQUATIONS
Page
2.1 Fatty acid 11
3.1 Fat content 41
3.2 Density of oil 41
3.3 Refractometer reading 41
3.4 Kinematic viscosity 43
3.5 Iodine value 44
3.6 Free fatty acid 45
3.7 Saponification value 45
3.8 Peroxide value 46
3.9 Unsaponifiable matter 47
3.10 Ester value 47
3,11 Solid fat content 50
3.12 Refractive index 52
3.13 Viscosity 54
3.14 Iodine value 54
3.15 Free fatty acid 55
3.16 Peroxide value 55
3.17 Spreadability 56
3.18 Consistency 57
3.19 Specific loaf volume 58
3.20 Loaf density 59
3.21 Loaf weight loss 59
3.22 Crumb moisture 59
3.23 CCD regression model 62
4.1 Solid fat content regression
model 83
4.2 Smoke point regression model 87
4.3 Melting point regression
model 94
4.4 Density regression model 99
4.5 Viscosity regression model 104
4.6 Iodine value regression model 106
4.7 Free
fatty acid regression model
0.0
BARIWERE, S (2023). Modification And Optimization Of The Physicochemical Properties Of Allanblackia (Allanblackia floribunda), African Walnut (Tetracarpidium conophorum) And Fluted Pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis) Seed Oil Blend In Bakery Shortening Production . Mouau.afribary.org: Retrieved Nov 28, 2024, from https://repository.mouau.edu.ng/work/view/modification-and-optimization-of-the-physicochemical-properties-of-allanblackia-allanblackia-floribunda-african-walnut-tetracarpidium-conophorum-and-fluted-pumpkin-telfairia-occidentalis-seed-oil-blend-in-bakery-shortening-production-7-2
SAMUEL, BARIWERE. "Modification And Optimization Of The Physicochemical Properties Of Allanblackia (Allanblackia floribunda), African Walnut (Tetracarpidium conophorum) And Fluted Pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis) Seed Oil Blend In Bakery Shortening Production " Mouau.afribary.org. Mouau.afribary.org, 27 Jul. 2023, https://repository.mouau.edu.ng/work/view/modification-and-optimization-of-the-physicochemical-properties-of-allanblackia-allanblackia-floribunda-african-walnut-tetracarpidium-conophorum-and-fluted-pumpkin-telfairia-occidentalis-seed-oil-blend-in-bakery-shortening-production-7-2. Accessed 28 Nov. 2024.
SAMUEL, BARIWERE. "Modification And Optimization Of The Physicochemical Properties Of Allanblackia (Allanblackia floribunda), African Walnut (Tetracarpidium conophorum) And Fluted Pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis) Seed Oil Blend In Bakery Shortening Production ". Mouau.afribary.org, Mouau.afribary.org, 27 Jul. 2023. Web. 28 Nov. 2024. < https://repository.mouau.edu.ng/work/view/modification-and-optimization-of-the-physicochemical-properties-of-allanblackia-allanblackia-floribunda-african-walnut-tetracarpidium-conophorum-and-fluted-pumpkin-telfairia-occidentalis-seed-oil-blend-in-bakery-shortening-production-7-2 >.
SAMUEL, BARIWERE. "Modification And Optimization Of The Physicochemical Properties Of Allanblackia (Allanblackia floribunda), African Walnut (Tetracarpidium conophorum) And Fluted Pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis) Seed Oil Blend In Bakery Shortening Production " Mouau.afribary.org (2023). Accessed 28 Nov. 2024. https://repository.mouau.edu.ng/work/view/modification-and-optimization-of-the-physicochemical-properties-of-allanblackia-allanblackia-floribunda-african-walnut-tetracarpidium-conophorum-and-fluted-pumpkin-telfairia-occidentalis-seed-oil-blend-in-bakery-shortening-production-7-2